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Smoking causes the lower esophageal sphincter to relax, allowing stomach acid to rise up the esophagus more easily

What they found was that the risk of smoking-related lung cancer among those who smoked less than a pack-and-a-half a day not only varied by ethnicity, but by how many cigarettes the individuals in the study smoked each day - the so-called smoking "dose." Among those who smoked fewer than 30 cigarettes per day, the risks for lung cancer among African Americans and Native Hawaiians were significantly greater than for the other groups in the study

By itself, the damage to genetic programming can cause normal lung cells to turn cancerous, but the process gets a major assist from a second effect of tobacco smoke: inflammation

However, the cost of diagnostic tests and cancer treatment can be challenging for many families